26 October 2025

Business Studies Market Segmentation – Identifying Your Target Customer

In business, not every product suits every person. Market segmentation helps companies divide a broad market into smaller groups with shared characteristics so they can focus their marketing, design, and pricing more effectively. Understanding segmentation gives students insight into why products, adverts, and messages look so different even within the same industry.

The Concept

Market segmentation means dividing customers into categories that share similar traits or needs.
The four main types are:

Demographic: age, gender, income, education
Geographic: location, climate, region
Psychographic: attitudes, interests, lifestyles
Behavioural: spending habits, brand loyalty, product use

By analysing these segments, businesses can tailor their approach — from the design of a product to the tone of its advertising.

The Example

A sportswear company might use:

Demographic segmentation to target 16–25-year-olds,
Psychographic segmentation to focus on active lifestyles, and
Behavioural segmentation to reward loyal customers through fitness apps and discounts.

Students can apply the same logic to real-world case studies such as phone contracts, fashion brands, or subscription services.

Skills Highlight

Identifying target markets using segmentation data
Linking consumer characteristics to product design and pricing
Analysing how marketing messages vary between customer groups
Understanding the balance between niche and mass marketing

Why It Works in Teaching

Segmentation connects theory to everyday experience. Students quickly see that every advert or product choice is deliberate — based on data and psychology rather than guesswork. It develops analytical and commercial thinking, key skills for business and marketing studies.

25 October 2025

Building a Basic Webpage with HTML and CSS – Why It Still Matters

In an age of website builders and AI design tools, it’s easy to wonder whether there’s any point in learning HTML and CSS from scratch. Yet understanding how to build a webpage manually remains one of the most valuable digital skills a student can gain. It teaches the logic, structure, and design principles that underpin everything from professional web development to app design and digital communication.

The Experiment in Code

Students start with a blank text editor and create a simple webpage:


<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
  <head>
    <title>My First Webpage</title>
    <style>
      body { font-family: Arial; background-color: #f2f2f2; text-align: center; }
      h1 { color: #333; }
    </style>
  </head>
  <body>
    <h1>Hello World</h1>
    <p>This is my first HTML and CSS page built from scratch.</p>
  </body>
</html>

Within minutes, they produce a page that displays correctly in any browser — something they’ve constructed entirely themselves.

Why Learn It?

Modern drag-and-drop tools are convenient, but they hide how web pages work. Learning the basics gives students:

Control: You can edit, fix, and improve what others can’t.
Understanding: Knowing HTML and CSS helps debug layout problems even when using automated tools.
Transferable Skills: The same concepts of structure, syntax, and logic appear in programming and app development.
Confidence: Building something from scratch provides a foundation for learning JavaScript, Python Flask, or other web technologies later.

Adding a Database to a Webpage – Bringing Data to Life

Once students understand how to build a static webpage using HTML and CSS, the next step is to make it interactive — to allow the site to store and retrieve information. This is where databases come in. Adding a database transforms a webpage from a simple display into a dynamic, data-driven application.

From Static to Dynamic

A static page always looks the same: the text and images are written directly into the code.
A dynamic page, by contrast, changes based on data — for example, a login page that checks usernames, a form that saves results, or a shop page that lists products from a database.

Using technologies such as Python with SQLite, PHP with MySQL, or JavaScript with Firebase, even beginners can now connect a webpage to a simple database.

The Basic Idea

A database stores information in tables — just like a spreadsheet, but faster and smarter.
A simple student project might include:

Table: Students
ID
1
2

When a webpage connects to this table, it can:

Display stored data (e.g. a list of grades)
Add new records through a form
Search or filter existing data
Update or delete entries as needed

The Example

Using Python Flask and SQLite, students can create a small web app:

The HTML form collects input (name and grade).
Flask connects to the SQLite database.
Submitting the form stores the new record.
A second page lists all entries from the table.

This simple project introduces concepts used across all major websites — from social media platforms to online stores.

Skills Highlight

Writing and editing basic HTML and CSS code
Understanding webpage structure: head, body, and styles
Linking code to visible design changes
Recognising how automation tools build on fundamental web technologies

Understanding how webpages communicate with databases
Using SQL commands to create, read, update, and delete records
Building simple web apps that store and display data
Linking coding and database design into one functional project

Why It Works in Teaching

Writing your own webpage demystifies the web. Students move from being passive users of technology to active creators. They understand what’s happening behind the page and learn the logic that every digital system builds upon. Adding a database makes programming feel purposeful. Students see how real websites function — collecting input, storing it, and producing useful output. It’s where theory meets practice, providing learners with a strong foundation in data handling and web development.

24 October 2025

Investigating Reaction Order with Sodium Thiosulfate and a PASCO Colorimeter

The reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid is a classic way to study rates of reaction. As the reaction proceeds, a yellow sulfur precipitate forms, turning the solution opaque. Using a PASCO colorimeter, students can now measure this change quantitatively and determine the reaction order with precision.

The Experiment

The reaction is:

\text{Na}_2\text{S}_2\text{O}_3(aq) + 2\text{HCl}(aq) \rightarrow 2\text{NaCl}(aq) + \text{SO}_2(g) + \text{S}(s) + \text{H}_2\text{O}(l)

Traditionally, students time how long it takes for a cross beneath the flask to disappear. With a PASCO colourimeter, the reaction becomes measurable in real time: the sensor tracks light transmission as the solution becomes cloudy.

Students run several experiments, varying:

Sodium thiosulfate concentration while keeping acid constant, or
Acid concentration while keeping thiosulfate constant.

The colorimeter records transmittance vs. time, which can be converted into reaction rate data for analysis.

The Science

As the sulfur precipitate forms, light transmission decreases. The rate of this change is directly related to how fast the reaction occurs.

By plotting 1/transmittance (or absorbance) against time and comparing runs with different concentrations, students can determine how rate depends on concentration.

If rate ∝ [thiosulfate]¹, the reaction is first order in thiosulfate; if rate ∝ [thiosulfate]², it is second order. The slope of the initial rate graph provides quantitative evidence of reaction order.

Skills Highlight

Using a PASCO colorimeter to collect quantitative reaction data
Calculating initial reaction rates and plotting rate–concentration graphs
Determining reaction order from experimental evidence
Understanding how kinetics connects to chemical mechanism

Why It Works in Teaching

The colorimeter replaces guesswork with real data. Students see how a qualitative “disappearing cross” experiment becomes a precise kinetic analysis, linking visible changes to concentration and time. It’s a perfect example of chemistry moving from observation to quantification.

23 October 2025

Exploring Standing Waves – Using a Strobe to See the Pattern

Standing waves are a perfect example of physics that you can both see and measure. When a vibrating string is viewed under a strobe light, the motion appears frozen, revealing the hidden structure of the wave — the nodes, antinodes, and harmonics that define resonance.

The Experiment

Using a string is stretched under tension and driven by a variable-frequency signal generator.
A strobe light flashes at adjustable frequency to make the oscillating string appear stationary.

As the driving frequency changes, students observe:

No stable pattern at most frequencies.
Clear standing waves at resonant frequencies — the string divides into distinct loops separated by nodes.

By synchronising the strobe frequency to match the wave’s motion, students can slow or freeze the pattern, making it easy to count loops and measure wavelength.

The Science

Standing waves form when two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite directions, interfering to create stationary nodes and vibrating antinodes.

The condition for resonance is:

f = \frac{n}{2L}\sqrt{\frac{T}{\mu}}

where $n$ is the harmonic number, $L$ is string length, $T$ is tension, and $\mu$ is mass per unit length.

The strobe effectively samples the motion at discrete times, creating the illusion of a stationary or slowly moving pattern — allowing students to measure details that are otherwise too fast for the eye to follow.

Skills Highlight

Using a strobe to visualise rapid oscillations
Measuring wavelength, frequency, and tension relationships
Identifying harmonics and verifying wave equations
Relating resonance to real-world systems such as strings, bridges, and air columns

Why It Works in Teaching

A strobe light turns invisible vibration into visible form. Students can pause motion, count nodes, and verify equations that describe wave behaviour. It’s one of the most satisfying demonstrations of resonance, combining precision measurement with a memorable visual experience.

22 October 2025

Solving Real Problems with Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations might look like lines crossing on a graph, but they’re far more than that — they are tools for solving everyday problems. From comparing mobile phone tariffs to mixing chemical solutions, these equations allow students to find where two conditions balance perfectly.

The Concept

Two equations with two unknowns can represent any situation where two rules or constraints overlap.
Graphically, each equation is a line, and the solution is the point of intersection — the one set of values that satisfies both conditions.

For example:

\begin{cases} 3x + 2y = 12 \\\\ x + y = 5 \end{cases}

Solving gives $x = 2$ and $y = 3$ , the only pair that works in both equations.

Real-World Applications

Finance: Comparing two mobile tariffs or energy deals to find where costs are equal.
Science: Determining the concentrations of two solutions when mixed.
Engineering: Finding where stress or voltage levels balance between two systems.
Business: Calculating production levels where cost equals revenue.

Students can plot the lines on graph paper or use algebraic substitution and elimination to find precise values.

Skills Highlight

Solving linear systems algebraically and graphically
Modelling real-life problems with mathematical equations
Interpreting points of intersection as meaningful, practical results
Using technology to verify and visualise solutions

Worked Example: Comparing Two Linear Cost Models

Scenario:
Two phone plans charge a monthly fee plus a cost per GB of data.

Plan A: £6 per month + £2 per GB
$C_A = 6 + 2x$
Plan B: £2 per month + £3 per GB
$C_B = 2 + 3x$

Here $x$ is data used (GB), and $C$ is cost (£).

Question:
For what usage $x$ do the plans cost the same? Which plan is cheaper below and above that usage?

Algebraic solution

Set costs equal:

6 + 2x = 2 + 3x

6 - 2 = 3x - 2x \Rightarrow 4 = x

At $x = 4$ GB, both plans cost:

C = 6 + 2(4) = 14 \text{ (£)} \quad\text{and}\quad C = 2 + 3(4) = 14 \text{ (£)}

Conclusion:

For $x < 4$ GB, Plan B is cheaper (higher per-GB but much lower fixed fee).
For $x > 4$ GB, Plan A is cheaper (lower per-GB dominates as usage grows).
At 4 GB, they are equal at £14.

How this looks on a graph

Plot $C_A = 6 + 2x$ (y-intercept 6, gradient 2).
Plot $C_B = 2 + 3x$ (y-intercept 2, gradient 3).
The lines intersect at $(x, C) = (4, 14)$ .
To the left of $x=4$ , the line for Plan B sits below Plan A (cheaper).
To the right of $x=4$ , Plan A sits below Plan B (cheaper).

Quick check with a table

Data $x$ (GB)	Plan A $C_A=6+2x$	Plan B $C_B=2+3x$	Cheaper
1	£8	£5	B
3	£12	£11	B
4	£14	£14	Tie
6	£18	£20	A

Extension idea (optional)

Ask students to add a third plan (e.g., £10 flat for up to 3 GB, then £1.50 per extra GB) and find the break-even points against Plans A and B. This introduces piecewise linear models and multiple intersections.

Why It Works in Teaching

Simultaneous equations provide a clear link between abstract maths and real decisions. Students see how equations model situations they recognise — and that solving them leads directly to useful, real-world answers.

21 October 2025

Investigating Newton’s Second Law

Investigating Newton’s Second Law Using the Horizontal and Vertical Ball Launcher – Which Ball Hits the Ground First?

Newton’s Second Law links force, mass, and acceleration — but it also explains one of the most surprising results in physics: a ball fired horizontally and another dropped vertically hit the ground at the same time, provided they start at the same height. This simple but elegant experiment helps students connect equations of motion to real-world outcomes.

The Experiment

Using a ball launcher, one ball is released vertically downward while another is launched horizontally from the same height. Students use strobe flash or high-speed video to measure the time each takes to hit the ground.

Observation:
Both balls land simultaneously — despite one moving sideways.

This happens because horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent. Gravity accelerates both balls downward at the same rate (about 9.8 m/s²), regardless of their horizontal speed. Mass has nothing to do with the equation and forces that work at right angles to one another are ignored.

The Science

The experiment illustrates the core of Newton’s Second Law:

F = ma

Gravity provides the same downward force on both balls, giving them equal acceleration.
The horizontally launched ball has an additional velocity component, but that motion does not affect how long gravity takes to pull it to the ground.

This principle lies behind projectile motion and explains why a bullet fired from a gun and one dropped from the same height (in a vacuum) would hit the ground together.

Skills Highlight

Applying $F = ma$ to explain motion in two dimensions
Recording and analysing motion data using sensors or video frames
Understanding the independence of horizontal and vertical motion
Using experiments to test theoretical predictions

Why It Works in Teaching

This investigation transforms abstract equations into a striking visual demonstration of Newton’s laws. Students often predict that the fired ball will take longer to fall — until they see the data prove otherwise. It’s one of those memorable experiments that makes physics click.

20 October 2025

Investigating Enzyme Inhibitors Using Catalase

Enzymes are biological catalysts that control reactions in living organisms, but their activity can be slowed or stopped by inhibitors. Using catalase — an enzyme found in many living tissues — students can explore how inhibitors affect enzyme activity and reaction rates.

The Experiment

Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen:

2H_2O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O + O_2

Students can measure the volume of oxygen produced or the height of foam formed when hydrogen peroxide reacts with catalase from liver or potato extracts.

To investigate inhibition:

Add a competitive inhibitor such as copper sulfate, which competes with the enzyme’s active site.
Add a non-competitive inhibitor like lead nitrate, which alters the enzyme’s shape.
Compare reaction rates with and without inhibitors at controlled temperature and pH.

Method 1: Measuring oxygen production

This method measures the rate of the reaction by quantifying the amount of oxygen produced.

Materials: You will need a catalase source (e.g., yeast, liver, or potato), hydrogen peroxide, a source of inhibitor, test tubes or a conical flask, a gas syringe or ruler to measure foam, and a stopwatch.

Set up the experiment: Place the hydrogen peroxide solution in a test tube or flask. Prepare the enzyme solution by grinding potato with distilled water or using a liquid source like yeast suspension.
Introduce the inhibitor: Add a specific concentration of the inhibitor to the hydrogen peroxide solution. Repeat the experiment with different concentrations of the same inhibitor, and also run a control without any inhibitor.
Start the reaction: Add the enzyme solution to the hydrogen peroxide and inhibitor mixture and immediately start the stopwatch.
Measure the product: Collect the oxygen gas produced in the gas syringe and record the volume at set time intervals, or measure the height of the foam produced.
Analyze the results: A slower reaction rate (less oxygen produced or lower foam height in a given time) indicates a more effective inhibitor.

Method 2: Using a filter paper disk (for qualitative analysis)

This is a simpler method, often used for a qualitative or comparative investigation.

Prepare the enzyme: Make a paste from a source of catalase, such as a potato, and suspend it in a small amount of distilled water.

Prepare the substrate: Place a solution of hydrogen peroxide in a specimen tube.

Prepare the filter paper disks: Dip small filter paper disks into the catalase suspension and tap off any excess liquid.
Add the inhibitor: Apply a drop of the inhibitor to one of the filter paper disks. You can also test disks without any inhibitor (control) and disks with different inhibitors.
Start the reaction: Drop the treated disk into the hydrogen peroxide solution and time how long it takes for the disk to sink to the bottom. The time it takes for the disk to sink is inversely proportional to the enzyme activity.
Analyze the results: If the inhibitor is effective, the disk will sink faster because the catalase is less active.

Prepare reagents: Measure the rate of product formation using a spectrophotometer to measure the absorption of light.

Substrate concentration: Keep the concentration of hydrogen peroxide constant across all experiments.

Method 3: Spectrophotometric analysis

Prepare reagents: Measure the rate of product formation using a spectrophotometer to measure the absorption of light.

Run the experiment: Place the reaction mixture in a cuvette and measure the light absorption of the product at a specific wavelength.
Introduce the inhibitor: Add the inhibitor and record the change in light absorption over time.
Analyze the results: A significant change in the rate of light absorption indicates the inhibitor is effective.
Key variables to control and investigate
This is the easiest to do in a short lesson when results are required quickly and using a @pascoscientific Colorimeter works well.

Substrate concentration: Keep the concentration of hydrogen peroxide constant across all experiments.
Enzyme concentration: Ensure the concentration of the catalase is the same for all trials.
pH and temperature: Maintain a constant pH and temperature, or investigate how inhibitors affect the enzyme activity at different temperatures or pH levels.
Inhibitor concentration: Vary the concentration of the inhibitor to determine its effect on enzyme activity and to calculate the
$cap I cap C sub 50$
value (the concentration of inhibitor required to halve the enzyme activity).

The Science

Enzyme inhibitors reduce the rate of reaction in two main ways:

Competitive inhibitors occupy the enzyme’s active site, blocking the substrate.
Non-competitive inhibitors bind elsewhere, changing the enzyme’s structure so the substrate no longer fits.

By plotting rate against inhibitor concentration, students can see how the rate decreases and learn how enzymes are regulated in cells — and how poisons and drugs work.

Skills Highlight

Designing fair tests with controlled variables
Measuring reaction rates quantitatively using gas volume or sensor data
Analysing graphs to interpret inhibition types
Linking enzyme structure to biochemical function

Why It Works in Teaching

This investigation links practical biochemistry to real-world contexts such as medicine and toxicology. Students can visualise enzyme action, inhibition, and the importance of active site shape — core ideas that underpin much of biology.